The Manhattan Project Essays (1139 words) - Manhattan Project

The Manhattan Project The Manhattan Project The Manhattan Project was and is still one of the most secretive projects ever created in United States history. The purpose of the Manhattan Project was simple: to build; test; and unleash its power if necessary. Robert Oppenheimer and General Leslie Groves were the two men put in charge of this mission. These two men along with the top scientists from around the country were brought together to construct the most deadliest thing known to man. The project originated in the Pentagon in 1942 when General Groves was told, by the White House, he was to lead the Manhattan Project. World War II had already been raged for three years when the Nazis, after being victorious in Europe, declared war on the United States. This was nine months after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. In September of that year, Groves, met with Leo Szilard and asked him if making the atomic bomb was possible. Leo told him how an atomic bomb would work, but also that it is impossible to build. General Groves only wanted to hear that an atomic bomb was conceivable in theory and then he knew to start the project. In October of 1942 Groves went to California to meet with Robert Oppenheimer, one of the most brilliant scientists in the country. Groves informed Oppenheimer that he had been selected to lead the expedition on trying to invent the atomic bomb. Oppenheimer immediately started preparing by telling Groves that they needed an isolated area with one ringmaster(Oppenheimer). General Groves was in charge of the military or security part of the project, while Oppenheimer was in charge of the organization of the scientists and ideas. At times, Oppenhiemer and Grooves had some nasty arguments over policies. Even though Groves was the one who reported to Washington, Oppenheimer had more power and Groves was aware of this. If they had a disagreement, Oppenheimer would threaten to leave the project and take his scientists with him. Groves knew if this occurred then the project would never be finished. So, Grooves most always ended up agreeing or letting Oppenheimer do what ever he wanted to do. In April of 1943, this isolated area was being build in Las Alamos, New Mexico. The borders consisted of barbed wire fence accompanied by guard dogs. Many laboratories, storage buildings, shelters, hospitals, dining halls, and other buildings were found inside these borders, also. One thing that was not found inside these borders though was women, not even wives of the scientists. No scientist was allowed to talk to anyone outside the camp about what they see, hear, taste, or even smell. Everything they knew belonged to the army now. Everything they knew from here on was highly confidential. There job was to create the atomic bomb and to do nothing else but that. They were to refer to bomb as the gadget or devise for security reasons. The scientists were given 19 months to complete their mission. Most of them complained that it could not be done, that it was not enough time. Under the leadership of Oppenheimer the work and research began. After several days, their work got them no where. They were faced with the problems such as weight, velocity, and detonation. To make such a bomb they needed materials heaving enough to weight tip the biggest cranes in the world. Late one night, while eating an orange and talking to another scientist, Seth Neddermeyer (a scientist) thought of an idea called implosion. He got the idea from the orange he was eating. This was probably the one idea that the atomic bomb is centered around. Without implosion, the atomic bomb could not be created. When he squeezed the orange, juice squirted out or an outwards explosion. If you can reverse this process, then the explosion goes in creating a even bigger force. This theory applies to Plutonium. Implosion occurs causing a chain reaction which in return causes an outwards explosion. If an inwards explosion occurred the Plutonium atoms would split apart creating the biggest explosion known to man. The problem was now creating an inward explosion. By this time, turmoil started to arise inside the camp. Many scientists began complaining about the drastic security measures that were being taken. Things such as the guard dogs and the FBI talking to the families of the scientists bothered them greatly. Also the scientists feared that Germany was ahead of them in creating the bomb. Not helping the situation, Oppenheimer had an affair with a Communist woman named Jean who he had known for quite some time. The army learned of

The Cave of Salamanca by Miguel de Cervantes

The Cave of Salamanca by Miguel de Cervantes The Cave of Salamanca by Miguel de Cervantes is focused on one specific family with its peculiarities, but considering the situation, it is possible to state that the problems and sins which occur in the family under discussion are inherent to the whole society.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Cave of Salamanca by Miguel de Cervantes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Discussing the plot the central events and the cases of deception are going to be highlighted. Thorough analysis of the situations and the cases of lying help the reader to understand the level of social deformity and depravity. The plot of the story is focused on Pancracio, his wife Leonarda, their maid Cristina, Pancracio’s friend Leoniso and a student who appeared in the house accidentally. He just needed to stay somewhere for a night not to sleep in the street. Having come to the place, he asked to have a sleep in the stable trying to sound as polite as he could, â€Å"I expected a more generous and gracious reception from such lovely and sweet ladies; particularly since I ask no arms, only a corner in the stable or a bit of straw for protection against of the darkness heavens, for the celestial sphere is threatening this sinful earth with the greatest severity† (Cervantes 90). Even though the reception of a student was not that great as he expected, due to his inner ability to communicate with people, keep secrets, feel what they want to hear and tell them this, Carraolani manages to stay at the house. Student’s arrival coincides with the departure of Pancracio, Leonarda’s husband which says that she is extremely sorry for this and promises to wait. However, she knows that Leoniso is going to come to her and one more man to her maid for having fun. However, the whole situation is ruined as Leonarda’s husband returns home and two men have nothing to do but to hide in the coal cellar. The si tuation seems rather complicated but thanks to wit and smart of the student, two men are able to leave safe. Reading the novel, much deception may be met. The first situation where husband informs his wife about departure is full of lie. Leonarda says that she is very disappointed with his departure, â€Å"I shall control my uncontrollable grief and spend the lonely hours of your absence thinking of you† (Cervantes 88).Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More All these words are considered as lie because as soon as Pancracio leaves, Leonarda says to her maid to invite Leoniso to entertain her. Another deception is the way how the men get into the house and bring a basket of products making everybody think that it is a basket of linen. It seems that each word said by the characters is a lie, that each particular gesture is just the may to make sure that hey lie is strong. One of the most impressive lies in the story is student’s discussion of the cave of Salamanca, his visit there and possession of the specific powers given to those who attend the cave. Trying to save two men from exposure, a student tells a story to Pancracio about his ability to communicate with the evil. He says that he is offered such a gift because he attended the courses in the cave of Salamanca. An affective appearance of black men from the coal cellar impresses Pancracio greatly and he cannot even think about deception. Looking at the situation which happens in the family and referring to the legend about the cave of Salamanca, it is important to state that the legend plays an inevitable part in the whole situation. Being the central deception, the legend about the cave of Salamanca symbolizes the beliefs of the society which is ready to think in something incredible rather than accept personal naught. The role of the central deception is rather impressive as i t points as the illness of the whole society. The society in the story is characterized as deceptive one without any intentions for desire to live better. The institution of marriage and the very idea of fidelity are criticized in The Cave of Salamanca. Introducing the theme of the deceived husband, the author reveals the social problem of marriage and the attitude of people to this early sacred ceremony. Moreover, the story also shows the domination of women under men even though it is universally accepted that women are to be subjected to their husbands. Jealous and the desire to capture a wife is shown from the husband’s side, while the wife is trying to hide her profligacy. In conclusion, it may be stated that the whole institution of family is criticized in a sarcastic manner.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Cave of Salamanca by Miguel de Cervantes specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The whole story is a show for one, for husband. Reading it, the impression is created that the whole life is the theater which performs particular plays for specific people and the society makes all possible to support that play, deceptive and mockery for one, but pleasant and impressive for others. Cervantes, Miguel. â€Å"The Cave Of Salamanca.† World Drama: Italy, Spain, France, Germany, Denmark, Russia, Norway. Ed. Barrett H. Clark. New York: Courier Dover Publications, 1956. 88-95. Print.

The Impact of Unemployment on the Economy Term Paper

The Impact of Unemployment on the Economy - Term Paper Example The success of a business relies on not only the own particular market and its own decisions but also the macroeconomic environment it operates within. The macroeconomic environment has a direct effect on the profitability and success of a business. This paper aims at dealing with one of the essential aspects of the macroeconomic environment of business, i.e. unemployment. This paper will deal with unemployment in detail and will include aspects like the meaning of unemployment, and the costs of unemployment. Also, a focus will be on the labor markets and unemployment. The study will also touch upon the two main types of unemployment, i.e. Disequilibrium unemployment and Equilibrium unemployment. Here an attempt will be made to explain the two types of unemployment and the various subcategories of these will also be touched upon. However, before moving on, it is essential to understand the meaning of a few terms like labor force, number unemployed, unemployment rate, and unemployment . Claimant Unemployment: This refers to the people who receive unemployment-related benefits (Sloman and Sutcliffe). This mainly measures all those who receive the unemployment-related benefits and claim the benefits to cover their expenses until they have a job. Standardized Unemployment Rate: This is an unemployment rate that is used by the International Labor Organization and the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (Sloman and Sutcliffe). Here unemployed refers to people of the working age and who are without work. b) Costs of unemployment: Unemployment leads to numerous costs and these costs do not only influence the person unemployed but others as well. There are three main costs that are involved with unemployment are as follows: i) The first and most obvious costs involved are that incurred by the unemployed themselves.

Evolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Evolution - Essay Example Although Scientists are convinced that macroevolution occurs resulting in emergence of new species, this is a misconception. This paper argues that macroevolution has never and will never occur. The reasons given by scientists to support occurrence of evolution are controversial and disputable. Irrespective of there being no observable evidence to show occurrence of macroevolution, scientist continue to defend the notion that the existing species evolved from primitive species through gradual stages. There is not recorded evidence that any distinct organism ever evolved into a different kind of organism. This shows that evolution of any significant scale has never occurred and will never occur (Camp, 2006). If the process of evolution ever occurred, then someone must have observed it. On the contrary no one has ever witnessed an organism undergo evolution. Additionally, there are no transitional forms of organism in existence. If evolution does occur, then different organisms of different species would at least be seen in their transitional stages (Denton, 2010). On the contrary, organisms belonging to same species are almost indistinguishable in terms of the traits they possess. Although a single species may have different varieties, there are no organisms in the transition stages that show characteristics such as shared features between two different species. For example, if human evolved from the apes, there should be some existing ape like human in the process of evolving into humans. On the contrary, contemporary apes are different from humans with no entities in the transitional stages (Camp, 2006). Another reason why macroevolution is an invention by scientists is failure of experiments in the lab. Scientists have carried out experiments using rapidly reproducing organisms such as fruit flies in an attempt to produce better species. Such experiments have failed even with use of

US as a World Power Essay Example for Free

US as a World Power Essay In the 1890’s, the idea of imperialism had begun imprinting itself in American minds. Many Americans began to believe that the United States was either going to explode or expand. Our country had a new sense of power which was generated from the growth of our industry and wealth. There were Americans who had pushed the idea of imperialism through books and articles, calling it the adventures of childhood dreams. The first moments had begun with President Cleveland and his secretary of state James G. Blaine. Imperialism had come off as an idea that benefited the world but, the cold hard truth was that we were simply just benefiting ourselves. Our new international interests began in several ways. Blaine had pushed the Big Sister policy, with this policy we were able to get the Latin Americans to rally with Uncle Sam. This give off an impression that we want to help out the others, give them an idea of bond ship with the United States but in reality, what we truly wanted was their open markets and utilize them for ourselves. Document A shows how power-hungry we are, wanting â€Å"to show our strength† and wanting â€Å"the taste of Empire†. One of the first ways we showed off our new, violent, and power hungry status was in 1899 against Germany. The two nations had been bickering over the Samoan Islands. Luckily, this was resolved and no war broke out. Alaska, another area of issues that occurred between The U. S. and Canada. This fight was a more idealistic than self interest one though. The hostilities had begun with seal hunting which, the United States was against giving off their humanitarian ideology. Doc. B, provide an explanation of this by stating that â€Å"we cannot fly from our world duties†. Hawaii was another area of interest to America. It’s location was able to hold a naval and it was enriched with resources the nation could use. American planters were searching for ways to secure Hawaii’s annexation. The Queen of Hawaii was against this and believed that her natives should keep control. The whites then revolted and the U. S. rushed to annexation but, President Cleveland withdrew the idea. The majority of the Hawaiian natives were against the idea and the idea of annexation was temporarily abandoned. We didn’t want to give Hawaii freedom and they didnt want it either, we just wanted to have over their island. Doc. C provide a well example of this, â€Å"they like their own way† yet we act as â€Å"amongst them as ruler†, not giving them the freedom. Cuba was another moment in our imperialistic time, where it was idealism than self-interest, supposedly. The Cuban’s were trying to revolt against their leaders in 1895. America gave their sympathies to the Cubans but were largely worried about their investments in the land. Senator Lodge at the time even showed their self-interest ways, â€Å"whoever controlled Cuba controls the Gulf†. McKinley, President at the time, gave in and sent the war message to free Cuba. Proposing the lie called The Teller Amendment after Cuba America was free but, not entirely. The Cubans were forced to sign to the Platt Amendment which basically, set them still under American control. This situation proves right here wanted control, not their freedom. Doc. D proves this control with stating, That the United States owns them but, â€Å"it can not incorporate them as part of the United States†. In1901, Theodore Roosevelt had taken the reigns of the U. S.  He had his own form of foreign policy called the Big Stick. The Big Stick policy was extremely aggressive and was very built around self-interest. Imperialists applauded his every move. His first move was the Panama Canal. The Colombian senate rejected the American offer of 10 million which Roosevelt didnt take fondly. In order to build his canal , Roosevelt sponsored a revolt in Panama and gained the opportunity to construct it with a larger zone. This situation right here shows how The U. S. truly did all the imperialistic moves in order to support itself not the world.

Family relationships Essay -- English Literature

Family relationships It is debatable whether family relationships are central to the novel ‘Emma’ and are indeed the foundations on which Highbury is built. Families may be viewed as objects of satire, as those featured are a source of financial rather than emotional support. Throughout the novel, status is built upon class position, material possession and finance, its characters eager to display such ‘qualities’. This essay shall demonstrate the emphasis placed upon wealth and social status, identify and interpret corresponding family units, as well as explore the use of match-making and marital agreements. The large proportion of families, contradict the perception that family relationships are the core of the novel and the foundations of Highbury life. For, families featured are predominantly broken or incomplete. The Woodhouses’ are one of the more prominent examples of rich yet emotionally lacking families in Highbury. For, the relationship between Emma and her father involves constant humouring on Emma’s part. Mr Woodhouse is an example of Austen’s use of exaggerated and satirical humour in order to emphasise the inadequacies of many families and individual members. With the death of Emma’s mother, a governess Ms Taylor acts as a replacement and the only source of emotional dependence for Emma. However, in light of Ms Taylor’s marriage to Mr Weston, it can be said that the clear source of family support and intimacy is removed, deepening the instability of the Woodhouse family at Hartfield. The absence of strong family relationships with regards to the Woodhouse’s, reinforce ideas that relationships are not at the core of society. The relationship between Mr Weston and his son Frank Churchill... ...or financial motives. Austen therefore suggests that many choices were made even though husband and wife did not even respect each other and indicate the impact of money in society. Although socially appropriate marriages, according to status are still apparent by the end of the novel, some superficiality associated with characters ceases to continue. In particular, Emma with regards to initial match-making schemes and the initial narrow minded views that she possesses. Emma and Mr Knightly, Harriet with Mr Martin and Jane with Frank Churchill contradict the frequent number of marriages based upon the wrong reasons in the 18th century. There is hope therefore; that the new families created would have valued the importance of family relationships to therefore change the foundations of Highbury, so that they would have indeed become central to the society.

Protection of Refugees in India

PROTECTION OF REFUGEES IN INDIA Deepak Shahi and Navrati Dongrey 2nd year B. A LL. B (Hons) . Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law, Patiala, Punjab ABSTRACT The development of the society and the nation brings with itself a lot of problems also. There are a lot of problems faced by India, be it gender issues, poverty, unemployment etc. one of these burning issues is the protection of refugees. Refugees are those people who have migrated from other country seeking shelter and protection. This paper deals with the various efforts taken to protect them at the national as well as international level. The concept of protection refugees in India dates back to the partition in 1947, which brought in India millions of refugees. Then came the creation of Bangladesh which invited refugees who settled in eastern states. The lack of uniform law governing the refugees has created chaos and dealing with the problem. The instable social, political and economic condition in the neighboring countries had led to the settlement of natives of these countries in India, as India is considered to be a very easy destination to live in illegally. There are lot of problem being faced by the government to tackle the growing number of refugees. The lack of strict vigil of the bordering states is one the reason for the settlement of refugees in India. This paper studies the protection provide by the Indian government to refuges and deals with the problem faced by them. In the end there is the conclusion and some suggestion given by us regarding the issue of protection. INTRODUCTION India’s multifariousness, constancy and relatively well established rule of law have made it a natural terminus for people fleeing persecution, ill-treatment, imbalance and instability in their own countries. Within the South Asian region, India stands out as an exception of tolerant, liberal, democratic and secular government in a neighborhood of unstable, fickled and volatile states. India has historically faced a legion of influxes over many millennia and the ability of these people to integrate into a multi-ethnic society and contribute peacefully to local cultures and economies has strengthened the perception of India being a country traditionally hospitable to refugees. India shares seven land borders and one sea border with countries in varied states of strife and war; and, over the years, has hosted large refugee populations not only from neighbouring countries but also from the countries outside the Indian subcontinent. Throughout the world and over the centuries, societies have welcomed frightened, weary strangers, the victims of persecution and violence. This humanitarian tradition of offering sanctuary is often now played out on television screens across the globe as war and large-scale persecution produce millions of refugees and internally displaced persons. Yet even as people continue to flee from threats to their lives and freedom, governments are, for many reasons, finding it increasingly difficult to reconcile their humanitarian impulses and obligations with their domestic needs and political realities. At the start of the 21st century, protecting refugees means maintaining solidarity with the world’s most threatened, while finding answers to the challenges confronting the international system that was created to do just that. [1] REFUGEE A person who is outside his or her country of nationality or habitual residence; has a well-founded fear of persecution because of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion; and is unable or unwilling to avail himself or herself of the rotection of that country, or to return there, for fear of persecution. [2] According to the humanitarian definition, a refugee is someone who has fled his country because he has a well-founded fear of persecution if he remains. The major obligation of refugee protection is the principle of non-refoulement, which ensures that a person is not returned to a life-threatening situation. [3] Refugees are a subgroup of the broader category of  displaced persons. Refugees flee because of the threat of persecution and cannot return safely to their homes in the prevailing circumstances. Persons, who have participated in war crimes and violations of humanitarian and human rights law including the crime of terrorism, are specifically excluded from the protection accorded to refugees. [4] Also Environmental refugees (people displaced because of  environmental  problems such as  drought) are not included in the definition of â€Å"refugee† under  international law, as well as  internally displaced people. Refugees are people who have demonstrated to the Immigration and Nationality Directorate that they have a well grounded fear of being persecuted in their home country for reasons of: †¢ Race Religion †¢ Nationality Or membership of a particular: †¢ Social group †¢ Political opinion These conditions are laid down in the 1951 United Nations Convention relating to the status of refugees to which the United Kingdom is a signatory. Sometimes people cannot meet the criteria laid down in the 1951 United Nations Convention but may be allowe d to stay in the United Kingdom on humanitarian grounds for a limited period of time. Refugees have the same rights and responsibilities as any other citizen, including rights associated with; †¢ Family reunion Welfare Benefits †¢ Work THE DEFINITION OF REFUGEES INCLUDES 1. That the person has to be outside their country of origin 2. The reason for their flight has to be a fear of persecution 3. This fear of persecution has to be well founded (i. e. they have to have experienced it or be likely to experience it if they return) 4. The persecution has to result from one or more of the five grounds listed in the definition 5. They have to be unwilling or unable to seek the protection of the authorities in their country[5] HOW IS REFUGEE DIFFERENT FROM ASYLUM SEEKER? An asylum seeker is a person who is seeking protection as a refugee and is still waiting to have his/her claim assessed. The Refugee Convention definition is used by the Australian Government to determine whether their country has protection obligations towards asylum seekers. If an asylum seeker who has reached Australia is found to be a refugee, Australia is obliged under international law to offer protection and to ensure that the person is not sent back unwillingly to a country in which they risk being prosecuted. 6] Refugees and asylum seekers are externally displaced people and cannot return Refugees and asylum seekers share their well-founded fear of persecution with internally displaced people (IDPs) who, although they have not crossed an international border, also cannot return to their homes. WHERE DO REFUGEES COME FROM? Most of the world’s recent refugees come from Afghanistan, Iraq and Colombia. Afghanistan continued to be the leading country of origin for refugees. As of the end of 2007, there were almost 3. million Afghan refugees, or 27 per cent of the global refugee population. Even though Afghan refugees were to be found in 72 asylum countries worldwide, 96 per cent of them were located in Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran alone. Iraqis were the second largest group, with 2. 3 million having sought refuge mainly in neighboring countries. Afghan and Iraqi refugees account for almost half of all refugees under UNHCR’s responsibility worldwide, followed by Colombians (552,000). [7] Top countries form where the Refugees originates Afghanistan |31,100,000 | |Iraq |23,00,000 | |Colombia |552,000 | |Sudan |523,000 | |Somalia |457,000 | |Burundi |376,000 | |DR Congo |370,000 | | | | Following countries takes Refugees Pakistan |2,033,000 | |Syria |1,503,800 | |Iran |963,500 | |Jordan |578,900 | |Germany |500,300 | |Tanzania |435,600 | |china |301,100 | |UK |299,700 | |Chad |294,000 | |us |281,200 | INDIAN CONTEXT India’s diversity, stability and relatively well established rule of law have made it a natural destination for people fleeing persecution and instability in their own countries. Within the South Asian region, India stands out as an exception of tolerant, democratic and secular government in a neighborhood of unstable and volatile states. India has historically faced numerous influxes over many millennia and the ability of these peoples to integrate into a multi-ethnic society and contribute peacefully to local cultures and economies has reinforced the perception of India being a country traditionally hospitable to refugees. India shares seven land borders and one sea border with countries in varied states of strife and war; and, over the years, has hosted large refugee populations from neighboring countries. India’s status as a preferred refugee harbor is confirmed by the steady flow of refugees from many of its sub continental neighbors as also from elsewhere. India continues to receive them despite its own over-a-billion population with at least six hundred million living in poverty with limited access to basic amenities. However, the Indian legal framework has no uniform law to deal with its huge refugee population, and has not made any progress towards evolving one either; until then, it chooses to treat incoming refugees based on their national origin and political considerations, questioning the uniformity of rights and privileges granted to refugee communities Indeed, the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) has submitted numerous reports. The current number of refugees and asylum seekers in India stands at approximately 435,900 according to the World Refugee Survey 2007 conducted by the United States Committee for Refugees and Immigrants (USCRI), and supported by the latest figures from the United Nations High Commissioner of Refugees (UNHCR). [8] India mostly plays host to refugees from its neighboring countries who are either forced to leave their countries of origin due to internal or external conflict, political persecution or human rights infringements. India has offered refugee status to asylum seekers from countries like china, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Afghanistan and Bhutan. [9] The circumstance in which the refugee’s exodus from their country may vary from political persecution However, it is clear that all these refugee populations deserve their basic human rights and the assistance that can be afforded by the Government of India. To define the word ‘refugee’ in Indian legal terms is theoretically not possible since neither the Foreigner’s Act (1946) nor its amendments or additions, contains or defines the term. However, this study shall consider the definition propounded by a commission chaired by Justice P N Bhagwati in 1997,[10] whose task was to construct a uniform national law on refugees. Although the bill was never tabled in Parliament, the term ‘refugee’ was adequately defined in the ‘Model Law’ as either. There are no authoritative statistics on the number of people who have fled persecution or violence in their countries of origin to seek safety in India. However, because of India’s porous borders and accommodative policies, it was estimated that India hosted approximately 3, 30,000 such people in 2004. [11] It is estimated that over 20 lakh Nepalis fleeing from civil conflict have entered India undetected over the open border. There are also an unknown but large number of people displaced from Bhutan because of their ethnic-Nepali origins. [12] LEGAL SETUP FOR REFUGEE’S PROTECTION After the Second World War, the Refugee Convention was adopted with restricted geographical and temporal conditions to apply to post-War Europe In 1967, in an effort to give the Convention universal application, a Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees that removed the restrictions of the Convention was added. Together, these two key legal documents provide the basic framework for refugee protection across the world. As of February 2006, 146 countries were States Parties to either the Convention or its Protocol or both. However, India has repeatedly declined to join either the Refugee Convention or its 1967 Protocol. In addition, India has resisted demands for a national legislation to govern the protection of refugees The relative success that India has had with this approach, which is guided by political instinct free from legal obligation, has led to an institutional complacency towards legal rights-enabling obligations to refugees. There has also been a hardening of attitudes about foreigners in recent years in light of heightened security concerns. This has resulted in genuine refugees paying an unfortunate price in a country that otherwise has an impressive history of protecting refugees. FOREIGNER’S ACT, 1964 India relies on the Foreigners Act, 1946 to govern the entry, stay and exit of foreigners in India. However, the Foreigners Act is a primitive legislation that was enacted as a reaction to the need of Second World War in the colonial period. The continuity to deal with this legislation in independent India even after the independence only show the government’s desire to retain absolute power to deal with foreigner[13] and thus covering all refugees within its ambit as well. CONSTITUIONAL PROVISION Also some provision of the Indian Constitution[14] reflect that the rules of natural justice in common law systems are equally applicable in India, even to refugees. The established principle of rule of law in India is that no person, whether a citizen or an alien shall be deprived of his life, liberty or property without the authority of law. The Constitution of India expressly incorporates the common law precept and the Courts have gone further to raise it to the status of one of the basic features of  the Constitution  which cannot be amended. Courts may apply international law only when there is no conflict between international law and domestic law, and also if the provisions of international law sought to be applied are not in contravention of the spirit of  the Constitution  and national legislation, thereby enabling a harmonious construction of laws. It has also been firmly laid that if there is any such conflict, then domestic law shall prevail. [15] RESTRICTED PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUITION There are a few Articles of the Indian Constitution which are equally applicable to refugees on the Indian soil in the same way as they are applicable to the Indian Citizens The Supreme Court of India has consistently held that the Fundamental Right enshrined under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution regarding the Right to life and personal liberty, applies to all irrespective of the fact whether they are citizens of India or aliens. 16] The various High Courts in India have liberally adopted the rules of natural justice t o refugee issues, along with recognition of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) as playing an important role in the protection of refugees. The Hon’ble High Court of Guwahati has in various judgments,  recognized the refugee issue and permitted refugees to approach the UNHCR for determination of their refugee status, while staying the deportation orders issued by the district court or the administration. In the case of National Human Rights Commission v. State of Arunachal Pradesh [17]the Hon’ble Supreme Court held that refugees are a class apart from foreigners deserving of the protection of Article 21 of the Constitution. INDIAN’S CONCERN TOWARDS REFUGEE’S PROTECTION There have been a number of special legislative measures to deal with refugee influxes inspite of any law which makes refugees as a special class distinct from foreigner Special laws to deal with refugees have been used primarily by the various State Governments[18] There are three main way in which the Indian government deal with refugees are refugees in mass influx situations are received in camps and accorded temporary protection by the Indian Government including, sometimes, A. A certain measure of socio-economic protection B. Asylum seekers from South Asian countries, or any other country with which the government has a sensitive relationship, apply to the government for political asylum which is usually granted without an extensive refugee status determination subject, of course, to political exigencies C. Citizens of other countries apply to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for individual refugee status determination in accordance with th e terms of the UNHCR Statute and the Refugee Convention The first ‘foreign’ influx of refugees occurred in 1959 from Tibet when the government, politically uncomfortable with China, set up transit camps, provided food and medical supplies, issued identity documents and even transferred land for exclusive Tibetan enclaves across the country for cultivation and occupation along with government provided housing, healthcare and educational facilities. The Sri Lankan Tamil refugees, having arrived in India in three waves beginning in 1983, have also been relatively well received in the geographically and ethnically contiguous State of Tamil Nadu where a large degree of local integration has occurred. In comparison, the Chakma influxes of 1964 and 1968 saw a subdued and reluctant government response. [19] The largest mass influx in post-Partition history occurred in 1971 when approximately 16 million refugees from erstwhile East Pakistan sought safety in India. Although most of the refugees returned within a year, the experience left the Indian government both bitter at the non responsiveness of international organizations and complacent in the confidence of being able to deal with future mass influxes. Refugees who are not extended direct assistance by the Indian Government are free to apply to the UNHCR for recognition of their asylum claims and other assistance. The ambivalence of India’s refugee policy is sharply brought out in relation to its Treatment of the UNHCR. While no formal arrangement exists between the Indian government and the UNHCR, India continues to sit on the UNHCR’s Executive Committee in Geneva. India has not even signed refugees convention. It is paradoxical but true that India allows UNHCR to operate it on its territory despite of being entered into any legal treaty. REFUGEES RIGHT UNDER LAW IN INDIA Many experts in the area of refugee law believe that the more practical alternative to proposing an entirely new law is to push for changes in India’s current policy regarding refugees. As stated above, no current Indian law refers directly to refugees. Refugees thus fall under the purview of the legislative framework that addresses all foreigners in India in the same way, under the Foreigners Act 1946. The Act contains broad powers of detention subject to the discretion of the executive, and makes illegal entry into the country a crime punishable by up to 5 years with no exception for refugees and asylum seekers. Also pertinent to determining the rights of refugees in Indian law are two pre-independence enactments that enable the government to impose stringent conditions of entry and stay in India. This body of legislation indisputably gives the Indian executive excessive powers over foreigners in India, including  the power to restrict movement inside India, to mandate medical examinations, and to limit employment opportunities. This framework is problematic for refugees because the government’s unrestrained power of expulsion could possibly lead to  refoulement  and deny refugees their basis human rights while in India – in contravention of international obligations. The Extradition Act 1962 provides some protection to refugees facing extradition by restricting the government’s freedom to remove from its territory a particular category of foreigners. 20]  This restriction, however, is so narrowly relevant that it does not provide any real safeguards for the majority of refugees in India whose removal from the territory is most likely to fall under the category of  expulsion  rather than  extradition. INDIA’S INTERNATIONAL EFFORT IN TH E PROTECTION OF REFUGEES Although India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention or the 1967 Protocol, it is party to a number of international human rights instruments that create protection obligations toward refugees. Indian and other commentators from developing countries also call attention to the current state of flux in international refugee law. In a statement to the Executive Committee of the UNHCR in October 2003, the Indian Permanent Representative pointed out that the situation of refugee and migratory movements in the world today are vastly different from what they were when the UNHCR was created and this had to be reflected in practice to enhance the UNHCR’s ability to play a meaningful role. [21] THE 1951 REFUGEE CONVENTION The 1951 refugee’s convention is considered as an internationally agreed instrument and a mile stone in refugees protection, since as mentioned earlier in the definition[22]. A person becomes refugee as soon as he or she is in the situation, and not after a state has formally recognized him to be so. He automatically becomes entitled to the protection under this definition. The ‘well found fear’ is to be judged to the advantage of the claimant which should take into account the situation prevailing in his origin and his individual circumstances. ‘Persecution is not defined in the convention but has been interpreted to mean ‘a violation of someone’s basic human right of sufficient gravity that the protection of another state is needed’. [23] INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS (ICCPR) It recognizes the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable right of all member of the human family. It takes into account the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and character of the United Nation. It binds that state to conform to the spirit of the covenant ‘ each party to the covenant to respect and ensure to all individual within its territory the rights herein recognized without distinction of any kind via; race, color, sex, language, political or other opinion national or social origin property birth or other status. [24] CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Although India’s past efforts in dealing with mass influxes has been commendable, its geopolitical position in the subcontinent makes it a preferred destination for asylum seekers and migrant workers. It can be easily seen from the foregoing paragraphs that India notwithstanding its own security concerns, particularly in the last couple of decades, and pressure of population and the attendant economic factors, continues to take a humanitarian view of the problem of refugees. Even though the country has not enacted a special law to govern ‘refugees’, it has not proved to be a serious handicap in coping satisfactorily with the enormous refugee problems besetting the country. The spirit and contents of the UN and International Conventions on the subject have been, by and large, honoured through executive as well as judicial intervention. By this means, the country has evolved a practical balance between human and humanitarian obligations on the one hand and security and national interest on the other. The need for a refugee law is immediate. The uniform treatment of refugees is a must as long as India continues to accept asylum seekers across its porous borders. The restrictions and unequal treatment imposed on the refugee population by the Indian government is discriminatory and tarnishes its human rights record, which is not outstanding in any case. India can require foreigners to reside in mandated areas, thereby barring their right of movement across the country, and providing India the ability to confine foreigners to refugee camps and conduct periodic camp inspections. One of the concerns that the host states have is the environmental degradation, which results from the activities of the refugees. The concern is real and needs to be addressed. In this regard the national law can place certain duties on the local administration, aid agencies, and on the refugee community. Often simple measures can avoid causing harm to the environment. For example in Bangladesh the UNHCR has distributed compressed rice husks as cooking fuel to all families in the refugee camps in order to minimize the collection of firewood and mitigate against deforestation around the camps. Since 1996, kerosene used for the ignition of the compressed rice husks is also being distributed to refugee families, to ensure that they do not need to collect firewood for this purpose. From the perspective of solutions, an important question which needs to be addressed concerns the problem of stateless persons in the region. For, among other things the problem of disputed nationality is the major obstacle in the process of repatriation. For example there are four large groups of stateless persons in the South Asian region. Despite the widespread consensus that detention should be viewed as an exceptional measure, a problem which confronts the refugees is detention without justification. The provision of the International Human Rights Law, which offers protection against arbitrary arrest and detention should be properly implemented. A key problem in India relates to the frequent denial of access to camps to NGOs and the UNHCR. While India may have legitimate concerns that motivate NGOs and states may indulge in disinformation to embarrass it before the international Community, the problem can be handled through establishing more effective communicative channels and diplomacy. The increasing emphasis of UNHCR in the last decade on voluntary repatriation as a solution meant that refugees are often returned against their will. Where return has been voluntary there needs to be thought given to devising effective mechanisms to ensure that the state of origin lives up to the promises which it had made in order to persuade refugee to return. Thus the chakma refugees who returned from India to the Chittagong Hill Tracts In Bangladesh found that the Government did little to give them back their lands, or to provide them with enough resources to guarantee a minimum standard of life. [25] Without any law or protocol, the Indian government has full autonomy to decide which rights and freedoms should be conferred upon which groups. Even ‘favored’ communities like the Tibetan refugees have suffered due to lack of a firm policy. There is also a need for a change in the law. The model law has not been sufficiently considered by the Union Government. For the last five years, the NHRC has been requesting the Government to provide refugee protection. Its present Chairman, A. S. Anand, has even set up a Committee to examine the law. The argument of terrorism and numbers having been met, there is no reason why the minimal protection against non-refoulement should not be enacted. This can probably be done even through rules. But the argument is not just over the Sri Lankan refugees, the Bangladeshis, the Afghans, the Bhutanese or the Myanmarese. It is whether India wants its voice on the world's most persecuted to be heard so as to mould future policy. If India is waiting for a cue from its neighbour, China has joined the convention and enacted refugee protection legislation. African countries have got together to devise both national and regional solutions. India needs to review its ambivalent refugee law policy, evolve a regional approach and enact rules or legislation to protect persecuted refugees. This is one step towards supporting a humanitarian law for those who need it. As a refugee-prone area, South Asia requires India to take the lead to devise a regional policy consistent with the region's needs and the capacity to absorb refugees under conditions of global equity. ———————– [1]Ms. Kate Jastram and Ms. Marilyn Achiron, Refugee Protection: A Guide to International Refugee Law, http://www. ipu. org/PDF/publications/refugee_en. pdf, (29 April 2010) [2] Article 1 of 1951 Refugee convention 1951 [3] Rajeev Dhavan, Refugee Law and Policy in India (New Delhi: PILSARC, 2004), p. 156. [4] Basic Facts, http://unhcr. org. ua/main. php? article_id=5&view=full ( 29 April 2010) [5] Article 1A(2) of the Refugee Convention, 1951 [6]Background information of refugees and asylum seeker http://www. refugeecouncil. org. au/docs/news&events/RW_Background_Information. pdf (visited on 26th march 2010) [7]World Refugee Survey 2007, United States Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, http://www. refugees. org/WRS_Archives/2007/48- 69. 27 march, 2010) [8] Rajeev Dhavan, On the Model Law for Refugees: A Response to the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC),† NHRC Annual Reports 1997- 1998, 1999-2000 (New Delhi: PILSARC, 2003). [9] Drafted under the auspices of the Regional Consultations on Refugees and Migratory Movements in South Asia initiative in 1995, with Justice P N Bhagwati as the Chairperson of the Drafting Committee of the India-specific version of the national law on refugee protection. [10] Florina Benoit, India: A National Refugee Law Would Equalise Protection, Refugees International, 2004. [11] Asian Development Bank, Nepal Country Strategy and Programme 2005-2009. [12] Section 2(a) of the foreigner’s act, 1964 defines ‘foreigner’ as â€Å"a person who is not a citizen of India†. [13] Article 22(1), 22(2) and 25(1) of the Indian constitution [14] T. Ananthachari, Refugees In India: Legal Framework, Law Enforcement And Security http://www. worldlii. org/int/journals/ISILYBIHRL/2001/7. html, (1 April 2010) [15] Articles,14,20 and 21 of the Indian Constitution [16] AIR 1966 SCC 742 [17] UNHCR Statistical Yearbook – India, 2003, UNHCR Geneva. [18] National Human Rights Commission (1996) 1 SCC 742 at pr. 15 [19] V. K. Dewan, The Extradition Act 1962’  in Law of Citizenship Foreigners and Passports, 2nd ed, Allahabad: Orient Law House, 1987,  p. 515. [20] James Hathaway, The Emerging Politics of Non-Entree, Refugees, Migration Review Vol. 91, December, pp. 40-41. [21] Article 1A(2) of the Refugee Convention,